African elephant
Guidance Documents
Safety Around Elephants - field guide (2019). (Ecoexist)
Setswana | English |
Protecting Your Field - field guide (2019). (Ecoexist) 
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Beehive fence construction manual: a step by step guide to building a protective beehive fence to deter crop-raiding elephants from farm land (2014). (King, L.E.) External resource
A decision support system for managing human-elephant conflict in Africa (2001). (AfESG)
English | French | Portuguese |
Trainers Manual
English | French |
English | French |
English | French | Portuguese |
English | French | Portuguese |
Key Papers
Barnes, R. F. W. 1996. The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests. Mammal Review 26:67-80. External resource
Branco, P. S., J. A. Merkle, R. M. Pringle, J. Pansu, A. B. Potter, A. Reynolds, M. Stalmans, and R. A. Long. 2019. Determinants of elephant foraging behavior
in a coupled human-natural system: is brown the new green? Journal of Animal Ecology External resource
Buchholtz, E. K., L. Redmore, L. A. Fitzgerald, A. Stronza, A. Songhurst, and G. McCulloch. 2019. Temporal partitioning and overlapping use of a shared
natural resource by people and elephants. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7. Download
Chiyo, P. I., and E. P. Cochrane. 2005. Population structure and behaviour of crop-raiding elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 43:233-241. External resource
Chiyo, P. I., E. P. Cochrane, L. Naughton, and G. I. Basuta. 2005. Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants: a response to changes in forage quality or crop availability? African Journal of Ecology 43:48-55. External resource
Chiyo, P. I., P. C. Lee, C. J. Moss, E. A. Archie, J. A. Hollister-Smith, and S. C. Alberts. 2011. No risk, no gain: effects of crop raiding and genetic diversity on body size in male elephants. Behavioral Ecology 22:552-558. External resource
Chiyo, P. I., C. J. Moss, and S. C. Alberts. 2012. The influence of life history milestones and association networks on crop-raiding behavior in male African
elephants. Plos One 7:11. Download
Chiyo, P. I., C. J. Moss, E. A. Archie, J. A. Hollister-Smith, and S. C. Alberts. 2011. Using molecular and observational techniques to estimate the number
and raiding patterns of crop-raiding elephants. Journal of Applied Ecology 48:788-796. Download
Durant, S. M., M. S. Becker, S. Creel, S. Bashir, A. J. Dickman, R. C. Beudels-Jamar, L. Lichtenfeld, R. Hilborn, J. Wall, G. Wittemyer, L. Badamjav, S.
Blake, L. Boitani, C. Breitenmoser, F. Broekhuis, D. Christianson, G. Cozzi, T. R. B. Davenport, J. Deutsch, P. Devillers, L. Dollar, S. Dolrenry,
I. Douglas-Hamilton, E. Droge, E. FitzHerbert, C. Foley, L. Hazzah, J. G. C. Hopcraft, D. Ikanda, A. Jacobson, D. Joubert, M. J. Kelly, J. Milanzi,
N. Mitchell, J. M'Soka, M. Msuha, T. Mweetwa, J. Nyahongo, E. Rosenblatt, P. Schuette, C. Sillero-Zubiri, A. R. E. Sinclair, M. R. Price, A. Zimmermann,
and N. Pettorelli. 2015. Developing fencing policies for dryland ecosystems. Journal of Applied Ecology 52:544-551. Download
Gadd, M. E. 2005. Conservation outside of parks: attitudes of local people in Laikipia, Kenya. Environmental Conservation 32:50-63. External resource
Graham, M. D., W. M. Adams, and G. N. Kahiro. 2012. Mobile phone communication in effective human-elephant conflict management in Laikipia County, Kenya. Oryx 46:137-144. External resource
Graham, M. D., I. Douglas-Hamilton, W. M. Adams, and P. C. Lee. 2009. The movement of African elephants in a human-dominated land-use mosaic. Animal Conservation 12:445-455. External resource
Graham, M. D., B. Notter, W. M. Adams, P. C. Lee, and T. N. Ochieng. 2010. Patterns of crop-raiding by elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya, and the management of human-elephant conflict. Systematics and Biodiversity 8:435-445. External resource
Graham, M. D., and T. Ochieng. 2008. Uptake and performance of farm-based measures for reducing crop raiding by elephants Loxodonta africana among smallholder farms in Laikipia District, Kenya. Oryx 42:76-82. External resource
Gross, E. M., B. P. Lahkar, N. Subedi, V. R. Nyirenda, L. L. Lichtenfeld, and O. Jakoby. 2018. Seasonality, crop type and crop phenology influence crop
damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation. External resource
Gross, E. M., R. McRobb, and J. Gross. 2016. Cultivating alternative crops reduces crop losses due to African elephants. Journal of Pest Science 89:497-506. External resource
Guerbois, C., E. Chapanda, and H. Fritz. 2012. Combining multi-scale socio-ecological approaches to understand the susceptibility of subsistence farmers
to elephant crop raiding on the edge of a protected area. Journal of Applied Ecology 49:1149-1158. Download
Gunn, J., D. Hawkins, R. F. W. Barnes, F. Mofulu, R. A. Grant, and G. W. Norton. 2014. The influence of lunar cycles on crop-raiding elephants; evidence for risk avoidance. African Journal of Ecology 52:129-137. External resource
Hill, C. M. 1998. Conflicting attitudes towards elephants around the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Environmental Conservation 25:244-250. External resource
Hoare, R. 2000. African elephants and humans in conflict: the outlook for co-existence. Oryx 34:34-38. External resource
Hoare, R. 2012. Lessons from 15 years of human-elephant conflict mitigation: management considerations involving biological, physical and governance issues
in Africa. Pachyderm:60-74. Download
Hoare, R. E. 2015. Lessons from 20 years of human–elephant conflict mitigation in Africa. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 20:289-295. External resource
Hoare, R. E. 1999. Determinants of human-elephant conflict in a land-use mosaic. Journal of Applied Ecology 36:689-700. Download
Hoare, R. E., and J. T. Du Toit. 1999. Coexistence between people and elephants in African savannas. Conservation Biology 13:633-639. External resource
Jackson, T. R., S. Mosojane, S. M. Ferreira, and R. J. van Aarde. 2008. Solutions for elephant Loxodonta africana crop raiding in northern Botswana: moving away from symptomatic approaches. Oryx 42:83-91. External resource
King, L. E., I. Douglas-Hamilton, and F. Vollrath. 2011. Beehive fences as effective deterrents for crop-raiding elephants: field trials in northern Kenya.
African Journal of Ecology 49:431-439. Download
King, L. E., A. Lawrence, I. Douglas-Hamilton, and F. Vollrath. 2009. Beehive fence deters crop-raiding elephants. African Journal of Ecology 47:131-137. External resource
Knickerbocker, T. J., and J. Waithaka. 2005. People and elephants in the Shimba Hills, Kenya. Pages 224-238 in A. Rabinowitz, R. Woodroffe, and S. Thirgood, editors. People and wildlife, conflict or co-existence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. External resource
Mackenzie, C. A., and P. Ahabyona. 2012. Elephants in the garden: financial and social costs of crop raiding. Ecological Economics 75:72-82. External resource
Mutinda, M., G. Chenge, F. Gakuya, M. Otiende, P. Omondi, S. Kasiki, R. C. Soriguer, and S. Alasaad. 2014. Detusking fence-breaker elephants as an approach
in human-elephant conflict mitigation. Plos One 9:7. Download
Naughton-Treves, L. 1998. Predicting patterns of crop damage by wildlife around Kibale National Park, Uganda. Conservation Biology 12:156-168. External resource
Naughton-Treves, L., J. L'Roe, A. L'Roe, and A. Treves. 2017. A long term comparison of local perceptions of crop loss to wildlife at Kibale National Park, Uganda: exploring consistency across individuals and sites.in C. M. Hill, A. D. Webber, and N. E. C. Priston, editors. Understanding conflicts about wildlife: a biosocial approach. Berghahn Books, New York. External resource
Naughton-Treves, L., and A. Treves. 2005. Socio-ecological factors shaping local support for wildlife: crop-raiding by elephants and other wildlife in Africa. Pages 252-277 in A. Rabinowitz, R. Woodroffe, and S. Thirgood, editors. People and wildlife, conflict or co-existence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. External resource
Naughton, L., R. Rose, and A. Treves. 1999. The social dimensions of human-elephant conflict in Africa: a literature review and case studies from Uganda and Cameroon. A Report to the African Elephant Specialist, Human-Elephant Conflict Task Force, of IUCN. Glands, Switzerland. External resource
Ngama, S., J. Bindelle, J. R. Poulsen, J.-L. Hornick, A. Linden, L. Korte, J.-L. Doucet, and C. Vermeulen. 2019. Do topography and fruit presence influence
occurrence and intensity of crop-raiding by forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis)? Plos One 14:e0213971. Download
Nsonsi, F., J. C. Heymans, J. Diamouangana, F. B. Mavinga, and T. Breuer. 2018. Perceived human–elephant conflict and its impact for elephant conservation
in northern Congo. African Journal of Ecology. External resource
O'Connell-Rodwell, C. E., T. Rodwell, M. Rice, and L. A. Hart. 2000. Living with the modern conservation paradigm: can agricultural communities co-exist with elephants? A five-year case study in East Caprivi, Namibia. Biological Conservation 93:381-391. External resource
Osborn, F. V. 2002. Capsicum oleoresin as an elephant repellent: field trials in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Journal of Wildlife Management 66:674-677. External resource
Osborn, F. V. 2004. Seasonal variation of feeding patterns and food selection by crop-raiding elephants in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 42:322-327. External resource
Osborn, F. V., and C. M. Hill. 2005. Techniques to reduce crop loss: human and technical dimensions in Africa. Pages 72-85 in A. Rabinowitz, R. Woodroffe, and S. Thirgood, editors. People and wildlife, conflict or co-existence? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. External resource
Osborn, F. V., and G. E. Parker. 2003. Towards an integrated approach for reducing the conflict between elephants and people: a review of current research. Oryx 37:80-84. External resource
Osipova, L., M. M. Okello, S. J. Njumbi, S. Ngene, D. Western, M. W. Hayward, and N. Balkenhol. 2018. Fencing solves human-wildlife conflict locally but
shifts problems elsewhere: a case study using functional connectivity modelling of the African elephant. Journal of Applied Ecology. External resource
Parker, G. E., and F. V. Osborn. 2006. Investigating the potential for chilli Capsicum spp. to reduce human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe. Oryx 40:343-346. External resource
Pittiglio, C., A. K. Skidmore, H. van Gils, M. K. McCall, and H. H. T. Prins. 2014. Smallholder farms as stepping stone corridors for crop-raiding elephant in Northern Tanzania: integration of Bayesian expert system and network simulator. Ambio 43:149-161. External resource
Pozo, R. A., T. Coulson, G. McCulloch, A. Stronza, and A. Songhurst. 2017. Chilli-briquettes modify the temporal behaviour of elephants, but not their numbers. Oryx:1-9. External resource
Pozo, R. A., J. J. Cusack, G. McCulloch, A. Stronza, A. Songhurst, and T. Coulson. 2018. Elephant space-use is not a good predictor of crop-damage. Biological Conservation 228:241-251. External resource
Shaffer, L. J., K. K. Khadka, J. Van Den Hoek, and K. J. Naithani. 2019. Human-elephant conflict: a review of current management strategies and future
directions. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 6. External resource
Sitati, N. W., and M. J. Walpole. 2006. Assessing farm-based measures for mitigating human-elephant conflict in Transmara District, Kenya. Oryx 40:279-286. External resource
Sitati, N. W., M. J. Walpole, and N. Leader-Williams. 2005. Factors affecting susceptibility of farms to crop raiding by African elephants: using a predictive
model to mitigate conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology 42:1175-1182. Download
Sitati, N. W., M. J. Walpole, R. J. Smith, and N. Leader-Williams. 2003. Predicting spatial aspects of human-elephant conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology
40:667-677. Download
Sitienei, A. J., G. Jiwen, and S. M. Ngene. 2014. Assessing the cost of living with elephants (Loxodonta africana) in areas adjacent to Meru National Park, Kenya. European Journal of Wildlife Research 60:323-330. External resource
Songhurst, A., and T. Coulson. 2014. Exploring the effects of spatial autocorrelation when identifying key drivers of wildlife crop-raiding. Ecology and
Evolution 4:582-593. Download
Songhurst, A., G. McClloch, and T. Coulson. 2016. Finding pathways to human-elephant coexistence: a risky business. Oryx 50:713-720. External resource
Tchamba, M. N. 1996. History and present status of the human elephant conflict in the Waza-Logone Region, Cameroon, west Africa. Biological Conservation 75:35-41. External resource
Thouless, C. R. 1994. Conflict between humans and elephants on private land in northern Kenya. Oryx 28:119-127. External resource
Von Gerhardt, K., A. Van Niekerk, M. Kidd, M. Samways, and J. Hanks. 2014. The role of elephant Loxodonta africana pathways as a spatial variable
in crop-raiding location. Oryx 48:436-444. External resource