Deterrents & repellents

Adams, T. S. F., I. Mwezi, and N. R. Jordan. 2020. Panic at the disco: solar-powered strobe light barriers reduce field incursion by African elephants Loxodonta africana in Chobe District, Botswana. Oryx:1-8.  External resource

 

Askren, R. J., M. W. Eichholz, C. M. Sharp, B. E. Washburn, S. F. Beckerman, C. K. Pullins, A. M. V. Fournier, J. A. Vonbank, M. D. Weegman, H. M. Hagy, and M. P. Ward. Behavioral responses of Canada geese to winter harassment in the context of human-wildlife conflicts. Wildlife Society Bulletin n/a:e1384.   Download 

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Ball, R., S. L. Jacobson, M. S. Rudolph, M. Trapani, and J. M. Plotnik. 2022. Acknowledging the relevance of elephant sensory perception to human-elephant conflict mitigation. Animals 12:1018.   Download 

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Breck, S. W., J. T. Schultz, D. Prause, C. Krebs, A. J. Giordano, and B. Boots. 2023. Integrating robotics into wildlife conservation: testing improvements to predator deterrents through movement. Peerj 11:e15491.   Download 

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Breck, S. W., N. Lance, and P. Callahan. 2006. A shocking device for protection of concentrated food sources from black bears. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:23-26.  External resource

 

Butcher, P. A., K. A. Lee, C. P. Brand, C. R. Gallen, M. Green, A. F. Smoothey, and V. M. Peddemors. 2023. Capture response and long-term fate of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) after release from SMART drumlines. Biology 12:1329.   Download 

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Campbell-Smith, G., R. Sembiring, and M. Linkie. 2012. Evaluating the effectiveness of human-orangutan conflict mitigation strategies in Sumatra. Journal of Applied Ecology 49:367-375.  External resource

 

Carlisle, K. M., H. E. Ellis, L. M. Jaebker, and A. D. Bright. 2022. Producers’ perceptions of large carnivores and nonlethal methods to protect livestock from depredation: findings from a multistate federal initiative. Human Dimensions of Wildlife:1-4.  External resource 

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Chelliah, K., G. Kannan, S. Kundu, N. Abilash, A. Madhusudan, N. Baskaran, and R. Sukumar. 2010. Testing the efficacy of a chilli-tobacco rope fence as a deterrent against crop-raiding elephants. Current Science 99:1239-1243.  External resource

 

Darrow, P. A., and J. A. Shivik. 2009. Bold, shy, and persistent: variable coyote response to light and sound stimuli. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 116:82-87.  External resource

 

Davies, T. E., S. Wilson, N. Hazarika, J. Chakrabarty, D. Das, D. J. Hodgson, and A. Zimmermann. 2011. Effectiveness of intervention methods against crop-raiding elephants. Conservation Letters 4:346-354.  Download

 

Denninger Snyder, K., K. M. Tiedeman, B. J. Barrett, M. Kibwe, R. J. Hijmans, and G. Wittemeyer. 2023. Differentiated drivers in wildlife-induced damage necessitate species-specific mitigation strategies in the western Serengeti, Tanzania. Biological Conservation 285:110202.   Download 

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Denninger Snyder, K., and D. Rentsch. 2020. Rethinking assessment of success of mitigation strategies for elephant-induced crop damage. Conservation Biology  External resource

 

Dieter, C. D., C. S. Warner, and C. Ren. 2014. Evaluation of foliar sprays to reduce crop damage by Canada geese. Human-Wildlife Interactions 8:139-149.  Download

 

Djoko, I. B., R. B. Weladji, and P. Paré. 2022. Diurnality in the defensive behaviour of African honeybees Apis mellifera adansonii and implications for their potential efficacy in beehive fences. Oryx:1-7.  Download

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Dror, S., F. Harich, O. Duangphakdee, T. Savini, Á. Pogány, J. Roberts, J. Geheran, and A. C. Treydte. 2020. Are Asian elephants afraid of honeybees? Experimental studies in northern Thailand. Mammalian Biology.  Download

 

Drouilly, M., N. Nattrass, and M. J. O’Riain. 2023. Small-livestock farmers’ perceived effectiveness of predation control methods and the correlates of reported illegal poison use in the South African Karoo. Ambio.   Download 

 

Dunford, C. E. 2022. Poisoning of big cats. Current Biology 32:R1334-R1335.   External resource 

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Egan, C. C., B. F. Blackwell, E. Fernández-Juricic, and P. E. Klug. 2023. Dispersal of blackbird flocks from sunflower fields: efficacy influenced by flock and field size but not drone platform. Wildlife Society Bulletin n/a:e1478.   Download 

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Eklund, A., J. V. López-Bao, M. Tourani, G. Chapron, and J. Frank. 2017. Limited evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to reduce livestock predation by large carnivores. Scientific Reports 7:2097.  Download

 

Elbroch, L. M., and A. Treves. 2023. Why might removing carnivores maintain or increase risks for domestic animals? Biological Conservation 283:110106.   Download 

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Findlay, C. R., D. Aleynik, A. Farcas, N. D. Merchant, D. Risch, and B. Wilson. 2021. Auditory impairment from acoustic seal deterrents predicted for harbour porpoises in a marine protected area. Journal of Applied Ecology.  Download 

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González, L. M., F. G. D. Montoto, T. Mereck, J. Alves, J. Pereira, P. F. de Larrinoa, A. Maroto, L. Bolonio, and N. El-Kadhir. 2017. Preventing crop raiding by the vulnerable common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius in Guinea-Bissau. Oryx 51:222-229.
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Gotz, T., and V. M. Janik. 2016. Non-lethal management of carnivore predation: long-term tests with a startle reflex-based deterrence system on a fish farm. Animal Conservation 19:212-221.  Download

 

Graham, M. D., and T. Ochieng. 2008. Uptake and performance of farm-based measures for reducing crop raiding by elephants Loxodonta africana among smallholder farms in Laikipia District, Kenya. Oryx 42:76-82.  External resource

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Hahn, N., A. Mwakatobe, J. Konuche, N. de Souza, J. Keyyu, M. Goss, A. Chang'a, S. Palminteri, E. Dinerstein, and D. Olson. 2017. Unmanned aerial vehicles mitigate human–elephant conflict on the borders of Tanzanian parks: a case study. Oryx 51:513-516.  External resource

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Hall, K. J., and P. A. Fleming. 2021. In the spotlight: can lights be used to mitigate fox predation on a free-range piggery? Applied Animal Behaviour Science 242:105420.  External resource 

 

Hedges, S., and D. Giunaryadi. 2010. Reducing human-elephant conflict: do chillies help deter elephants from entering crop fields? Oryx 44:139-146.  External resource

 

Heim, W., A. Piironen, R. J. Heim, M. Piha, T. Seimola, J. T. Forsman, and T. Laaksonen. 2022. Effects of multiple targeted repelling measures on the behaviour of individually tracked birds in an area of increasing human-wildlife conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology.  Download 

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Hill, C. M., and G. E. Wallace. 2012. Crop protection and conflict mitigation: reducing the costs of living alongside non-human primates. Biodiversity and Conservation 21:2569-2587.  External resource

 

Hoare, R. 2012. Lessons from 15 years of human-elephant conflict mitigation: management considerations involving biological, physical and governance issues in Africa. Pachyderm:60-74.  Download

 

Hsiao, S. S., C. Ross, C. M. Hill, and G. E. Wallace. 2013. Crop-raiding deterrents around Budongo Forest Reserve: an evaluation through farmer actions and perceptions. Oryx 47:569-577.  External resource

 

Kidd-Weaver, A. D., T. R. Rainwater, T. M. Murphy, and C. M. Bodinof Jachowski. 2022. Evaluating the efficacy of capture as aversive conditioning for American alligators in human-dominated landscapes. The Journal of Wildlife Management:e22259.  Download 

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King, L. E., I. Douglas-Hamilton, and F. Vollrath. 2011. Beehive fences as effective deterrents for crop-raiding elephants: field trials in northern Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 49:431-439.  Download

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King, L. E., A. Lawrence, I. Douglas-Hamilton, and F. Vollrath. 2009. Beehive fence deters crop-raiding elephants. African Journal of Ecology 47:131-137.  External resource

 

Kuramoto, Y., Y. Fujimori, R. Ito, Y. Kobayashi, and Y. Sakurai. 2021. Measures for co-existence between seals and coastal large-scale salmon set net fisheries: mitigation of catch damage by the use of rope grid. Fisheries Research 242:106041.  External resource 

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Kyokuhaire, A. M., C. A. Chapman, P. A. Omeja, D. M. Tumusiime, B. Y. Abwoli, and M. J. Lawes. Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park. African Journal of Ecology n/a.   External resource 

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La Grange, M., C. Matema, B. Nyamukure, and R. Hoare. 2022. The virtual fence dynamic: a breakthrough for low-cost and sustainable mitigation of human-elephant conflict in subsistence agriculture? Frontiers in Conservation Science 3.  Download 

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Laguna, E., J. A. Barasona, A. J. Carpio, J. Vicente, and P. Acevedo. 2022. Permeability of artificial barriers (fences) for wild boar Sus scrofa in Mediterranean mixed landscapes. Pest Management Science.  Download 

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Laguna, E., P. Palencia, A. J. Carpio, J. Mateos-Aparicio, C. Herraiz, C. Notario, J. Vicente, V. Montoro, and P. Acevedo. 2022. Evaluation of a combined and portable light-ultrasound device with which to deter red deer. European Journal of Wildlife Research 68:50.  Download

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Lajeunesse, G., E. W. Smith, H. W. Harshaw, and C. C. St. Clair. 2023. Proactive use of intensive aversive conditioning increases probability of retreat by coyotes. Ecosphere 14:e4676.   Download 

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Lance, N. J., S. W. Breck, C. Sime, P. Callahan, and J. A. Shivik. 2010. Biological, technical, and social aspects of applying electrified fladry for livestock protection from wolves (Canis lupus). Wildlife Research 37:708-714.  External resource
 

Manoa, D. O., S. Melubo, S. Kasaine, P. Banham, J. Willie, T. Oloo, E. Greengrass, and N. Tagg. 2022. Drivers of predator-proof boma disrepair in the Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. Oryx:1-9.   Download 

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Massei, G. 2023. Fertility control for wildlife: a European perspective. Animals 13:428.   Download 

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Mazue, F., C. Guerbois, H. Fritz, N. Rebout, and O. Petit. 2022. Less bins, less baboons: reducing access to anthropogenic food effectively decreases the urban foraging behavior of a troop of chacma baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus) in a peri-urban area. Primates.   External resource 

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Mazur, R. L. 2010. Does aversive conditioning reduce human-black bear conflict? Journal of Wildlife Management 74:48-54.  External resource

 

Miller, J. R. B., K. J. Stoner, M. R. Cejtin, T. K. Meyer, A. D. Middleton, and O. J. Schmitz. 2016. Effectiveness of contemporary techniques for reducing livestock depredations by large carnivores. Wildlife Society Bulletin 40:806-815.  External resource

 

Montero-Botey, M., and R. Perea. 2023. Infrared barriers as a detection tool to reduce human–elephant conflicts. Wildlife Biology n/a:e01124.   Download 

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Montero Botey, M., M. Soliño, R. Perea, and M. Martínez-Jauregui. 2022. Let us give voice to local farmers: preferences for farm-based strategies to enhance human-elephant coexistence in Africa. Animals 12:1867.  Download 

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Morehouse, A. T., C. Hughes, N. Manners, J. Bectell, and J. Tigner. 2021. Dealing with deadstock: a case study of carnivore conflict mitigation from southwestern Alberta. Frontiers in Conservation Science 2.  Download 

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Natarajan, L., A. Kumar, Q. Qureshi, A. A. Desai, and B. Pandav. 2021. Evaluation of wall-barriers to manage human conflict with Asian elephants in India. Wildlife Society Bulletin.  External resource 

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Nelson, A., P. Bidwell, and C. Sillero-Zubiri. 2003. A review of human-elephant conflict management strategies. People & Wildlife, A Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Born Free Foundation Partnership.  Download

 

Osborn, F. V. 2002. Capsicum oleoresin as an elephant repellent: field trials in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Journal of Wildlife Management 66:674-677.  External resource

 

Parker, G. E., and F. V. Osborn. 2006. Investigating the potential for chilli Capsicum spp. to reduce human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe. Oryx 40:343-346.  External resource

 

Pekarsky, S., I. Schiffner, Y. Markin, and R. Nathan. 2021. Using movement ecology to evaluate the effectiveness of multiple human-wildlife conflict management practices. Biological Conservation 262:109306.  External resource 

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Petracca, L. S., J. L. Frair, G. Bastille-Rousseau, D. W. Macdonald, and A. J. Loveridge. 2021. Harassment-induced changes in lion space use as a conflict mitigation tool. Conservation Science and Practice 3:e373.  Download

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Poerting, J. 2023. Infrastructure as biopolitics: fencing, categorizing and valuing animals for wolf conservation in Germany. Political Geography 105:102926.   Download 

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Pozo, R. A., T. Coulson, G. McCulloch, A. Stronza, and A. Songhurst. 2017. Chilli-briquettes modify the temporal behaviour of elephants, but not their numbers. Oryx:1-9.  External resource

 

Seegobin, V. O., R. Z. Oleksy, and F. B. V. Florens. 2022. Foraging and roosting patterns of a repeatedly mass-culled island flying fox reveals opportunities to mitigate human–wildlife conflict. Biodiversity:1-12.  External resource 

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Shivik, J. A. 2006. Tools for the edge: what's new for conserving carnivores. Bioscience 56:253-259.  External resource

 

Shivik, J. A., A. Treves, and P. Callahan. 2003. Nonlethal techniques for managing predation: primary and secondary repellents. Conservation Biology 17:1531-1537.  External resource

 

Sibanda, L., P. J. Johnson, E. van der Meer, C. Hughes, B. Dlodlo, L. J. Mathe, J. E. Hunt, R. H. Parry, D. W. Macdonald, and A. J. Loveridge. 2021. Effectiveness of community-based livestock protection strategies: a case study of human–lion conflict mitigation. Oryx:1-9.  Download 

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Sitati, N. W., and M. J. Walpole. 2006. Assessing farm-based measures for mitigating human-elephant conflict in Transmara District, Kenya. Oryx 40:279-286.  External resource

 

Smith, M. E., J. D. C. Linnell, J. Odden, and J. E. Swenson. 2000. Review of methods to reduce livestock depredation II. Aversive conditioning, deterrents and repellents. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section a-Animal Science 50:304-315.  External resource

 

Smith, T. S., S. Herrero, C. S. Layton, R. T. Larsen, and K. R. Johnson. 2012. Efficacy of firearms for bear deterrence in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 76:1021-1027.  External resource

 

Snijders, L., N. M. Thierij, R. Appleby, C. C. St. Clair, and J. Tobajas. 2021. Conditioned taste aversion as a tool for mitigating human-wildlife conflicts. Frontiers in Conservation Science 2.  Download

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Stone, S. A., S. W. Breck, J. Timberlake, P. M. Haswell, F. Najera, B. S. Bean, and D. J. Thornhill. 2017. Adaptive use of nonlethal strategies for minimizing wolf–sheep conflict in Idaho. Journal of Mammalogy 98:33-44.  Download

 

Thuppil, V., and R. G. Coss. 2016. Playback of felid growls mitigates crop-raiding by elephants Elephas maximus in southern India. Oryx 50:329-335.  External resource

 

Tidwell, K. S., B. A. Carrothers, D. T. Blumstein, and Z. A. Schakner. 2021. Steller seal lion (Eumetopias jubatus) response to non-lethal hazing at Bonneville dam. Frontiers in Conservation Science 2.  Download 

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Tiller, L. N., E. Oniba, G. Opira, E. J. Brennan, L. E. King, V. Ndombi, D. Wanjala, and M. R. Robertson. 2022. "Smelly" elephant repellent: assessing the efficacy of a novel olfactory approach to mitigating elephant crop raiding in Uganda and Kenya. Diversity 14.  Download 

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Treves, A., Wallace, R. B. and White, S. 2009. Participatory planning of interventions to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. Conservation Biology 23:1577-1587.  External resource

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van Eeden, L. M., M. S. Crowther, C. R. Dickman, D. W. Macdonald, W. J. Ripple, E. G. Ritchie, and T. M. Newsome. 2018. Managing conflict between large carnivores and livestock. Conservation Biology 32:26-34.  External resource

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van Eeden, L. M., A. Eklund, J. R. B. Miller, J. V. López-Bao, G. Chapron, M. R. Cejtin, M. S. Crowther, C. R. Dickman, J. Frank, M. Krofel, D. W. Macdonald, J. McManus, T. K. Meyer, A. D. Middleton, T. M. Newsome, W. J. Ripple, E. G. Ritchie, O. J. Schmitz, K. J. Stoner, M. Tourani, and A. Treves. 2018. Carnivore conservation needs evidence-based livestock protection. PLOS Biology 16:e2005577.  Download

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Volski, L., A. McInturff, K. M. Gaynor, V. Yovovich, and J. S. Brashares. 2021. Social effectiveness and human-wildlife conflict: linking the ecological effectiveness and social acceptability of livestock protection tools. Frontiers in Conservation Science 2.  Download

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von Essen, E., M. Drenthen, and M. Bhardwaj. 2023. How fences communicate interspecies codes of conduct in the landscape: toward bidirectional communication? Wildlife Biology n/a:e01146.   Download 

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Westbrook, C. J., and K. England. 2022. Relative effectiveness of four different guards in preventing beaver cutting of urban trees. Environmental Management.   External resource 

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White, J. P., W. H. Stiver, M. K. Steinberg, and J. R. Cissell. 2022. Comparing management techniques used on conflict American black bears in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Ursus 2022:1-7, 7.  External resource 

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Widén, A., J. P. G. M. Cromsigt, S. Dressel, A. M. Felton, N. J. Singh, and F. Widemo. 2023. Direct and indirect effects of food, fear and management on crop damage by ungulates. Ecological Solutions and Evidence 4:e12266.   Download 

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Widén, A., M. Clinchy, A. M. Felton, T. R. Hofmeester, D. P. J. Kuijper, N. J. Singh, F. Widemo, L. Y. Zanette, and J. P. G. M. Cromsigt. 2022. Playbacks of predator vocalizations reduce crop damage by ungulates. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 328:107853.   Download

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Wilder, J. M., L. S. Mangipane, T. Atwood, A. Kochnev, T. Smith, and D. Vongraven. 2023. Efficacy of bear spray as a deterrent against polar bears. Wildlife Society Bulletin 47:e1403.   Download

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Young, J. K., E. Miller, and A. Essex. 2015. Evaluating fladry designs to improve utility as a nonlethal management tool to reduce livestock depredation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 39:429-433.  External resource

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Zanni, M., F. Brivio, D. Berzi, S. Calderola, S. Luccarini, L. Costanzi, F. Dartora, and M. Apollonio. 2023. A report of short-term aversive conditioning on a wolf documented through telemetry. European Journal of Wildlife Research 69:64.   Download 

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Zarco-Gonzalez, M. M., and O. Monroy-Vilchis. 2014. Effectiveness of low-cost deterrents in decreasing livestock predation by felids: a case in Central Mexico. Animal Conservation 17:371-378.  External resource

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Zimmermann, A., T. E. Davies, N. Hazarika, S. Wilson, J. Chakrabarty, B. Hazarika, and D. Das. 2009. Community-based human-elephant conflict management in Assam. Gajah 30:34-40.  Download