Electric fences

Key Papers

Creel, S., M. S. Becker, S. M. Durant, J. M'Soka, W. Matandiko, A. J. Dickman, D. Christianson, E. Dröge, T. Mweetwa, N. Pettorelli, E. Rosenblatt, P. Schuette, R. Woodroffe, S. Bashir, R. C. Beudels-Jamar, S. Blake, M. Borner, C. Breitenmoser, F. Broekhuis, G. Cozzi, T. R. B. Davenport, J. Deutsch, L. Dollar, S. Dolrenry, I. Douglas-Hamilton, E. Fitzherbert, C. Foley, L. Hazzah, P. Henschel, R. Hilborn, J. G. C. Hopcraft, D. Ikanda, A. Jacobson, B. Joubert, D. Joubert, M. S. Kelly, L. Lichtenfeld, G. M. Mace, J. Milanzi, N. Mitchell, M. Msuha, R. Muir, J. Nyahongo, S. Pimm, G. Purchase, C. Schenck, C. Sillero-Zubiri, A. R. E. Sinclair, A. N. Songorwa, M. Stanley-Price, C. A. Tehou, C. Trout, J. Wall, G. Wittemyer, and A. Zimmermann. 2013. Conserving large populations of lions – the argument for fences has holes. Ecology Letters 16:1413-e1413.  External resource  

Davies, T. E., S. Wilson, N. Hazarika, J. Chakrabarty, D. Das, D. J. Hodgson, and A. Zimmermann. 2011. Effectiveness of intervention methods against crop-raiding elephants. Conservation Letters 4:346-354.  Download

de la Torre, J. A., G. Camacho, P. Arroyo-Gerala, I. Cassaigne, M. Rivero, and A. Campos-Arceiz. 2021. A cost-effective approach to mitigate conflict between ranchers and large predators: a case study with jaguars in the Mayan Forest. Biological Conservation 256:109066.  External resource

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Durant, S. M., M. S. Becker, S. Creel, S. Bashir, A. J. Dickman, R. C. Beudels-Jamar, L. Lichtenfeld, R. Hilborn, J. Wall, G. Wittemyer, L. Badamjav, S. Blake, L. Boitani, C. Breitenmoser, F. Broekhuis, D. Christianson, G. Cozzi, T. R. B. Davenport, J. Deutsch, P. Devillers, L. Dollar, S. Dolrenry, I. Douglas-Hamilton, E. Droge, E. FitzHerbert, C. Foley, L. Hazzah, J. G. C. Hopcraft, D. Ikanda, A. Jacobson, D. Joubert, M. J. Kelly, J. Milanzi, N. Mitchell, J. M'Soka, M. Msuha, T. Mweetwa, J. Nyahongo, E. Rosenblatt, P. Schuette, C. Sillero-Zubiri, A. R. E. Sinclair, M. R. Price, A. Zimmermann, and N. Pettorelli. 2015. Developing fencing policies for dryland ecosystems. Journal of Applied Ecology 52:544-551.  Download

Evans, L. A., and W. M. Adams. 2016. Fencing elephants: the hidden politics of wildlife fencing in Laikipia, Kenya. Land Use Policy 51:215-228.  Download

Feuerbacher, A., C. Lippert, J. Kuenzang, and K. Subedi. 2021. Low-cost electric fencing for peaceful coexistence: an analysis of human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategies in smallholder agriculture. Biological Conservation 255:108919.  External resource

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Frank, J., and A. Eklund. 2017. Poor construction, not time, takes its toll on subsidised fences designed to deter large carnivores. Plos One 12:e0175211.  Download

González, L. M., F. G. D. Montoto, T. Mereck, J. Alves, J. Pereira, P. F. de Larrinoa, A. Maroto, L. Bolonio, and N. El-Kadhir. 2017. Preventing crop raiding by the vulnerable common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius in Guinea-Bissau. Oryx 51:222-229.
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Hayward, M. W., and G. I. H. Kerley. 2009. Fencing for conservation: restriction of evolutionary potential or a riposte to threatening processes? Biological Conservation 142:1-13.  External resource

Hoare, R. 2012. Lessons from 15 years of human-elephant conflict mitigation: management considerations involving biological, physical and governance issues in Africa. Pachyderm:60-74.  Download

Hoare, R. E. 1992. Present and future use of fencing in the management of larger African mammals. Environmental Conservation 19:160-164.  External resource

Karlsson, J., and M. Sjöström. 2011. Subsidized fencing of livestock as a means of increasing tolerance for wolves. Ecology and Society 16.  Download

Kesch, M. K., D. T. Bauer, and A. J. Loveridge. 2015. Break on through to the other side: the effectiveness of game fencing to mitigate human-wildlife conflict. African Journal of Wildlife Research 45:76-87.  External resource

Kioko, J., P. Muruthi, P. Omondi, and P. I. Chiyo. 2008. The performance of electric fences as elephant barriers in Amboseli, Kenya. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38:52-58.  External resource

Lance, N. J., S. W. Breck, C. Sime, P. Callahan, and J. A. Shivik. 2010. Biological, technical, and social aspects of applying electrified fladry for livestock protection from wolves (Canis lupus). Wildlife Research 37:708-714.  External resource

Levin, M. 2002. How to prevent damage from large predators with electric fences. Carnivore Damage Prevention News 5:5-8.  External resource

Miller, J. R. B., K. J. Stoner, M. R. Cejtin, T. K. Meyer, A. D. Middleton, and O. J. Schmitz. 2016. Effectiveness of contemporary techniques for reducing livestock depredations by large carnivores. Wildlife Society Bulletin 40:806-815.  External resource

Mutinda, M., G. Chenge, F. Gakuya, M. Otiende, P. Omondi, S. Kasiki, R. C. Soriguer, and S. Alasaad. 2014. Detusking fence-breaker elephants as an approach in human-elephant conflict mitigation. Plos One 9:7.  Download

Nelson, A., P. Bidwell, and C. Sillero-Zubiri. 2003. A review of human-elephant conflict management strategies. People & Wildlife, A Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Born Free Foundation Partnership.  Download

O'Connell-Rodwell, C. E., T. Rodwell, M. Rice, and L. A. Hart. 2000. Living with the modern conservation paradigm: can agricultural communities co-exist with elephants? A five-year case study in East Caprivi, Namibia. Biological Conservation 93:381-391.  External resource

Okello, M. M., and D. E. D'Amour. 2008. Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments 72:2179-2192.  External resource

Osipova, L., M. M. Okello, S. J. Njumbi, S. Ngene, D. Western, M. W. Hayward, and N. Balkenhol. 2018. Fencing solves human-wildlife conflict locally but shifts problems elsewhere: a case study using functional connectivity modelling of the African elephant. Journal of Applied Ecology.  External resource

Packer, C., A. Loveridge, S. Canney, T. Caro, S. T. Garnett, M. Pfeifer, K. K. Zander, A. Swanson, D. MacNulty, G. Balme, H. Bauer, C. M. Begg, K. S. Begg, S. Bhalla, C. Bissett, T. Bodasing, H. Brink, A. Burger, A. C. Burton, B. Clegg, S. Dell, A. Delsink, T. Dickerson, S. M. Dloniak, D. Druce, L. Frank, P. Funston, N. Gichohi, R. Groom, C. Hanekom, B. Heath, L. Hunter, H. H. DeIongh, C. J. Joubert, S. M. Kasiki, B. Kissui, W. Knocker, B. Leathem, P. A. Lindsey, S. D. Maclennan, J. W. McNutt, S. M. Miller, S. Naylor, P. Nel, C. Ng'weno, K. Nicholls, J. O. Ogutu, E. Okot-Omoya, B. D. Patterson, A. Plumptre, J. Salerno, K. Skinner, R. Slotow, E. A. Sogbohossou, K. J. Stratford, C. Winterbach, H. Winterbach, and S. Polasky. 2013. Conserving large carnivores: dollars and fence. Ecology Letters 16:635-641.  External resource

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Pekor, A., J. R. B. Miller, M. V. Flyman, S. Kasiki, M. K. Kesch, S. M. Miller, K. Uiseb, V. van der Merve, and P. A. Lindsey. 2019. Fencing Africa's protected areas: costs, benefits, and management issues. Biological Conservation 229:67-75.  External resource

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Sapkota, S., A. Aryal, S. R. Baral, M. W. Hayward, and D. Raubenheimer. 2014. Economic analysis of electric fencing for mitigating human-wildlife conflict in Nepal. Journal of Resources and Ecology 5:237-243.  External resource

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Thouless, C. R., and J. Sakwa. 1995. Shocking elephants - fences and crop raiders in Laikipia distirct, Kenya. Biological Conservation 72:99-107.  External resource

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Van Eden, M., E. Ellis, and B. L. Bruyere. 2016. The influence of human–elephant conflict on electric fence management and perception among different rural communities in Laikipia County, Kenya. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 21:283-296.  External resource

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Wilkinson, C. E., A. McInturff, M. Kelly, and J. S. Brashares. 2021. Quantifying wildlife responses to conservation fencing in East Africa. Biological Conservation 256:109071. External resource

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Zimmermann, A., T. E. Davies, N. Hazarika, S. Wilson, J. Chakrabarty, B. Hazarika, and D. Das. 2009. Community-based human-elephant conflict management in Assam. Gajah 30:34-40.  Download